**Salting**: Add random suffix to skewed keys (e.g., key -> key_1, key_2, ... key_N) to distribute load.
**Trade-offs**: (1) **More partitions**—Nx keys; more shuffle output. (2) **Extra aggregation**—after join/agg, must merge salted groups. (3) **Memory**—expanded join keys. (4) **Benefit**—eliminates stragglers; job finishes instead of one task running 10x longer.
**When to Use**: One/few keys dominate (e.g., null, default, popular tenant)....
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