Monad: Type wrapping a computation with flatMap; obeys left/right identity and associativity. Option encapsulates optional values—Some(x) or None; handles null safely. Example: val r = for { a <- Some(1); b <- Some(2) } yield a+b. WHY: Composable error handling; avoids NullPointerException; chains transformations cleanly. SCALABILITY: Monadic composition scales in complexity; for-comprehensions improve readability. COST: Slight overhead vs. raw null checks; benefits in large codebases....
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